Stoke's Aster - A Sensible Plant Named For A Lunartick

Stokesia laevis (Stoke's Aster)

Stokesia laevis, also known as Carthamus laevis, Stoke's Aster and Cornflower Aster, is an heirloom plant you may remember seeing in your grandmother's garden. Many hard-working women of yesteryear had no time for fussy flowers. Today's overwhelmed gardeners aren't much different. Perhaps that's why Stoke's Aster was and is so popular. It's a beautiful, sensible, low maintenance plant.

According to the USDA PLANTS database, Stoke's Aster is native to the southeastern United States, generally found growing in the coastal plain. Native plants are perfectly suited to their environments. That's why they're native. Ubiquitous native plants are ignored. Undesirable native plants are called "weeds." Attractive native plants are called "ornamentals", collected and transplanted to gardens. Perhaps that explains why Stoke's Aster ended up in my grandmothers' flower beds.

Stokesia (pronounced "sto-KEES-ee-ah") was named for Dr. Jonathan Stokes (c. 1755 - 1831). Stokes was an English physician and botanist. Historically, physicians tended to be botanists because doctors relied on plants for their medicinal qualities. They usually corresponded with others about their findings, and often published them. This was the case with Dr. Stokes.

As a member of the original Lunar Society, Stokes often met and corresponded with fellows to discuss science, philosophy and whatever else mattered. Apparently, the Lunar Society was so-named because the members met at night under the full moon. The moonlight made nocturnal travels easier. Eventually, the members were known as "lunarticks", an appellation they merrily embraced. Their convivial society was beneficial personally and professionally.

Jonathan Stokes published books on botany including A Botanical Materia Medica: Consisting of the Generic and Specific Characters of the Plants Used in Medicine and Diet, with Synonyms, and References to Medical Authors (1812) and Botanical Commentaries (1830). Botanical Commentaries would be most interesting to the layman.

Stokesia flowers appear from spring to fall. They're about 3 inches in diameter and usually purple, though colors may range to pinkish and nearly white. They are borne on strong stems. They're long-lasting, too.

Foliage is herbaceous. The plant rosette may remain green during winter months in warmer climates. Leaf surfaces are smooth. Plants grow to 12 inches height and spread from 12 to 15 inches.

Stoke's Aster is hardy in USDA climate zones 5 through 10. They thrive in full sun to partial shade, but flowering is most profuse in full sun. Plant in well-drained, loamy to sandy loam soil with pH ranging from 5.6 to 7.5. Take a soil sample to your local Cooperative Extension Office for analysis. If stokesias fail, the problem can usually be traced to poor drainage or too little sun exposure.

Stokesia laevis is best known for colorful, long-lasting flowers. In addition, the flowers attract butterflies. Plants are deer-resistant, drought-tolerant and somewhat salt-tolerant.

Stoke's Aster, a perennial plant, is well-suited to garden borders, butterfly gardens, cut flower gardens and xeriscaping.

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The Allure Of Catnip

Nepeta 'Walker's Low'

The Allure Of Catnip

Animals of many sorts have found their pleasures among common weeds. Wandering cats apparently found theirs around Nepi (Nepete), Italy. The town became for them a little Etruscan resort on a hill. The plant was a kind of mint, a member of the Lamiaceae family. So closely associated was it with the town that it was eventually called Nepeta (pronounced NEP-eh,tuh), aka Catnip, Catmint. Nepeta is native to most of Europe.



As cats set off to discover the New World, they carried dried leaves and and seeds with them. Dried herbs for the long trip. Seeds for colonization when they arrived. Large quantities, sometimes of inferior quality, were transported and sold in unmarked burlap sacks, un chat en poche.

There are about 250 species worldwide. Only 4 species of Nepeta are widely distributed in North America.

Catnip is often enjoyed by humans, but not in the same way as their feline owners. Catnip tea is said to promote relaxation, so is used as a sleep aid. It can also reduce sinus congestion.

Catnip plants are wonderful for the herb garden. The alluring flowers and aroma are pleasing. In addition to cats, they attract honey bees and butterflies.

Many gardeners grow catnip for the sole purpose of serving their cats and laughing at their drunken antics. Kind of like watching Foster Brooks on Youtube.

All cats are not so influenced by catnip. Ours shows no interest. Not a bit. Nevertheless, my wife and daughter drop sprigs on the floor because cats are supposed to adore it.  Perhaps our cat is simply too proud to have it served on a rug.

Lavender flower spikes, held above aromatic silver-green foliage, bloom from late spring until frost. Nepeta foliage is evergreen in warmer climates to semi-evergreen in cooler zones.

Catnip prefers full sun to partial shade in USDA climate zones 4 to 8. Plant in average garden soil that is slightly moist with pH ranging from 6.0 to 7.5. Take a sample to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service office for analysis. The fee is nominal.

If soil is compacted, prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 8 inches deep, removing all traces of weeds.  If the soil is high in organic matter and friable, it may not require cultivation.  Compost may be incorporated into the soil, if necessary.  Incorporate 10-10-10 fertilizer at a rate of no more 2 lbs. per 100 square feet into the top 4 inches to 6 inches of soil. Avoid synthetic fertilizers contacting any part of your plants.

Space the plants between 12 inches to 24 inches apart. Dig planting holes into the cultivated soil a little less deep than the depth of the growing container. Place the plants into the holes and back-fill, watering as you go. Press soil around the root balls. Do not cover entirely the root balls with soil. The tops should be slightly exposed. Add a top-dressing of mulch around the plants, not on top of them, about 1 inch deep.

In addition to herb gardens, catnip is great for butterfly gardens, medicinal gardens, and perennial borders. Cat fanciers with limited growing space can grow catnip in containers. If you live in an area where dry spells are frequent, you'll be relieved to know that catnip is drought-tolerant once established. If you're besieged by deer, catnip is deer resistant.

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Kniphofia - Out Of Africa A Red Hot Torch Lily

Kniphofia uvaria. Photo by Toby Hudson.

 Out Of Africa A Red Hot Torch Lily

From Africa comes a bold spear of blazing hot color to a garden near you. It's called Kniphofia (pronounced nip-HOFF-ee-ah), the Red Hot Poker or Torch Lily. Kniphofia species are native from Ethiopia to Sudan, Madagascar and South Africa, with most found in the later.

Depending on the species, long, sword-like leaves may grow to 3 feet long. Upright spikes of bright, tubular flowers may extend to 6 feet (K. multiflora). Most popular garden species grow to less than half that size. Flower color ranges from red orange to light yellow. The flower spikes inspired the names Torch Lily and Red Hot Poker.

Kniphofia is a member of the Asphodeloideae subfamily, along with Aloe. Aloe is another African native. So closely does it resemble Aloe, in fact, that it was originally given that name by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). Aloe (pronounced AL-oh) is derived from an Arabic word, Alloeh, meaning "bitter."

In Linnaeus day, taxonomy was not so standardized. There were almost as many systems as there were botanists. They'd name, correspond, argue, reorder and rename. Sometimes they'd name plants to honor other botanists. Red Hot Poker, for example, was later renamed to honor Johannes Kniphof (1704-1763). Kniphof was a botanist and Professor of Medicine at Erfurt University. German naturalist, Lorenze Oken (1779-1851) reorganized Linnaeus' Aloe (aka Kniphofia). Sometime along the way, Kniphofia was also named Tritoma because of its flower form, but the name didn't stick.

Undoubtedly the fiery flower spikes of Red Hot Poker first attracted the attention of plant explorers. But they weren't only interested in ornamental value. They were drawn by medical potential, too. Very many early botanists were also physicians. It's possible explorers also observed that Red Hot Poker was used by native Africans for treating stomach cramps, and for eradicating intestinal parasites in cattle. More recently, some species have shown potential for treating malaria.

Kniphofias thrive in full sun in USDA climate zones 5 through 10 in average, well-drained soil with pH from 6.6 to 7.5. All species are drought and heat-tolerant. Kniphofia attracts butterflies and hummingbirds. Deer will not eat it!

If soil is compacted, prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 8 inches deep, removing all traces of weeds.  If the soil is high in organic matter and friable, it may not require cultivation.  Compost may be incorporated into the soil, if necessary.  Incorporate 10-10-10 fertilizer at a rate of no more 2 lbs. per 100 square feet into the top 4 inches to 6 inches of soil. Avoid synthetic fertilizers contacting any part of your plants. 

Space the plants 12 inches to 18 inches apart. Dig planting holes into the cultivated soil a little less deep than the depth of the growing container. Place the plants into the holes and back-fill, watering as you go. Press soil around the root balls. Do not cover entirely the root balls with soil. The tops should be slightly exposed. Add a top-dressing of mulch around the plants, not on top of them, about 1 inch deep.

Kniphofia requires very little maintenance. In some areas Kniphofia has made itself too much at home - parts of Australia and California, for example,

Red Hot Poker is a superb plant that lends height, texture and bold color to a sunny garden. Plant it to attract hummingbirds and butterflies. It's also fine addition to African plant collections and medicinal gardens.

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Aquilegia (Columbine) - The Eagle And The Dove

Aquilegia canadensis by Jennifer Anderson @ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database

Aquilegia (Columbine) - The Eagle And The Dove

The name Aquilegia (a-kwi-LEE-jee-a) is derived from the Latin aquila, referring to the talon-like structures or "spurs" on its flowers. The name "columbine", derived from the Latin word for "dove" (columba), was given because someone observed that, viewed from below, the petals resemble a cluster of doves. So, in one plant genus we have a vision of two very different birds.

Some of my dearest childhood memories are of hiking in the mountains with my elders, brother and cousins. Actually, we didn't hike; we strolled. For us children, strolling and stopping was a source of frustration. We were always in a hurry wanting to reach the summit. But we were usually accompanied by at least one real old elder who slowed us down a lot. Typically, the oldest was also the most knowledgeable about plants, or who felt like stopping to talk about them more. "Boys, now boys," grandfather would say, "this is...", and he'd probe it with his walking staff and proceed to tell us what ailment it was good for. After he died, my dad and uncles would do the same.

So I was leisurely, thoughtfully introduced to Aquilegia. In the Rocky Mountains it was Aquilegia coerulea growing beside a brook. It was Aquilegia canadensis along the Blue Ridge.

Actually, there was one thing that could temporarily distract me from reaching the summit. If the teaching elder would say, "Indians used this to...", I was ready to stop and learn. I learned that columbine was used to treat stomach cramps; reduce fever, pain and swelling; kill parasites; stop bleeding and make you pee. I also learned that little water droplets sometimes collected in the tops of the flowers below the spurs, which was kind of a neat thing to discover. I sometimes wondered if I could take something to kill pinworms, why it wouldn't kill me, too. I never asked. But, I suppose it's because Aquilegia is somewhat toxic, though not dangerous if taken as directed by a knowledgeable doctor.

From those woodland strolls, I also learned a principle by my elders' examples which means much more to me now that I'm the elder often inclined to mosey and pause at flowers.

"All that is needed for calm happiness
Hast thou not here?
Hast thou not pleasure in the golden bough
That shields thee from the day's fierce glow?
Canst thou not raise thy breast to catch,
On the soft moss beside the brook,
The sun's last rays at even?
Here thou mayst wander through the flowers' fresh dew,
Pluck from the overflow
The forest-trees provide,
Thy choicest food,--mayst quench
Thy light thirst at the silvery spring.
Oh friend, true happiness
Lies in contentedness,
And that contentedness
Finds everywhere enough."
"Oh, wise one!" said the eagle, while he sank
In deep and ever deep'ning thought--
"Oh Wisdom! like a dove thou speakest!"
The Eagle And The Dove - Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

If you'd like to grow columbine, you probably can. Of the 60 or so Aquilegia species, 22 are native to North America. One Aquilegia vulgaris, native to Europe, thrives here, too. You'll find columbines in practically every state and province. Among the various species and hybrids, there are columbines cold hardy or heat-tolerant enough to thrive from USDA climate zones 3 to 10.

Choose a site in full sun to full shade. In hotter climates, partial shade is preferred. Before planting, you'll need to know the pH level of your soil. Aquilegias generally prefer slightly moist, well-drained soil with pH ranging from 6.6 to 7.5. Take a sample to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service office for analysis. The fee is nominal.

If soil is compacted, prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 8 inches deep, removing all traces of weeds.  If the soil is high in organic matter and friable, it may not require cultivation.  Compost may be incorporated into the soil, if necessary.  Incorporate 10-10-10 fertilizer at a rate of no more 2 lbs. per 100 square feet into the top 4 inches to 6 inches of soil. Avoid synthetic fertilizers contacting any part of your plants.

Space the plants between 12 inches to 24 inches apart. Dig planting holes into the cultivated soil a little less deep than the depth of the growing container. Place the plants into the holes and back-fill, watering as you go. Press soil around the root balls. Do not cover entirely the root balls with soil. The tops should be slightly exposed. Add a top-dressing of mulch around the plants, not on top of them, about 1 inch deep.

Columbines are suitable for mixed perennial borders, hummingbird and butterfly gardens, medicinal plant and native plant collections.

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Antennaria - Like Velvet Pussy-toes

Spring tiptoes in
    on grey, velvet pussy-toes

Allegro from Through the Window of My Car: A Poem in Four Seasons by Elle Fredine.

Pussy-toes are like that - discreet and unassuming. Have you ever heard of Pussy-toes? No? Well, according to the USDA PLANTS Database, they're present in every state and province of the United States and Canada. See what I mean? They're almost everywhere, but discreet and unassuming.

Pussy-toes belong to the genus, Antennaria (pronounced an-ten-AR-ee-uh). The word means something like, "lots of antennae", and it's thought that the name was bestowed because the anthers of some species resemble insect antennae. It's interesting, eh, that taxonomists imagined antennae rather than cats' toes.

There are about 40 to 45 species of Antennaria. Most occur in North America. Some also occur in Europe. One species, Antennaria chilensis, is native to South America. Sizes vary from 4 inches to 20 inches.

A few species and cultivars are available commercially, though they tend to be hard to find.

Antennaria carpatica is also known as Carpathian Cat's-foot or Pussy-toes. An Illustrated Flora of the northern United States, by Nathaniel Lord Britton and The Honorable Addison Brown, says it's native to the U.S., Canada and Europe. According to The International Plant Names Index, synonyms include Antennaria carpatica var. pulcherrima and Antennaria pulcherrima. According to Flora Europaea, synonyms include Antennaria lanata and Antennaria helvetica. Gray-green foliage is evergreen. Low tufts of fluffy-white flowers appear spring to mid-summer. It grows quickly and thrives in full sun to partial shade. Mature height is up to 2 inches, and spreads up to 12 inches. Carpathian Cat's-foot is drought tolerant, deer resistant and tolerates foot traffic. It thrives in USDA climate zones 2 or 3 to 9, preferring normal to sandy soil with pH ranging from 5.6 to 7.8.

Antennaria carpatica 'Rubrum'

Antennaria carpatica 'Rubrum' is also known as Pink Carpathian Cat's-foot or Pink Pussy-toes. Low tufts of pink and white flowers appear spring to mid-summer. Otherwise it's the same as the species in every respect.

Antennaria dioica is commonly named Pearly Everlasting. It grows to about 6 inches in height, and spreads to 12 inches. Antennaria dioica 'Rubra' produces pink pussy-toe flowers. Foliage is fuzzy, silvery-grey and evergreen. It's hardy in USDA climate zones 4 or 5 to 9. 

Antennaria plantaginifolia

Antennaria plantaginifolia is known as Plantain-leaf Pussy-Toes and Old Woman's Tobacco. It's native to the eastern United States from Maine to Florida, west to Minnesota and south to Louisiana. Compact white flowers appear from mid-spring to early summer. Semi-evergreen foliage is broad, fuzzy, silvery grey-green. Height is up to 6 inches. It makes a very attractive ground cover. Antennaria plantaginifolia is hardy in USDA climate 3 to 9. 

Antennaria rosea forms a dense, silvery mat. Foliage is evergreen. Pink pussy-toe flowers appear on short stems in spring. Mature size is 2 inches high x 15 inches across. It's native to the American Northwest.

Before planting, you'll need to know the pH level of your soil. Pussy-toes prefer normal to sandy soil with pH ranging from 5.6 to 7.8. Take a sample to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service office for analysis. The fee is nominal.

Pussy-toes are great for container gardens, rock gardens, edging, ground cover, green roof, lawn substitute, hanging baskets. Pussy-toes attract butterflies, so their perfect for butterfly gardens, too.

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Rudbeckia - Where Black-Eyed Susans Grow

Rudbeckia 'Spotlight'

One of my earliest heart-felt memories of early childhood is of walking in our front yard overlooking the river waist-deep in Black-Eyed Susans. Now the sight of them anywhere recalls those halcyon days. And there are many reminders, for Black-Eyed Susans are native to North America. According to the USDA PLANTS Database, there are few states where at least one species can't be found in the wild.

It's believed that English colonists gave the flowers their common name inspired by a popular romantic poem of the time, Black-Eyed Susan by John Gay (1685-1732).

ALL in the Downs the fleet was moor’d,
  The streamers waving in the wind,
When black-eyed Susan came aboard;
  ‘O! where shall I my true-love find?   
Tell me, ye jovial sailors, tell me true
If my sweet William sails among the crew.’   

William, who high upon the yard
  Rock’d with the billow to and fro,
Soon as her well-known voice he heard
  He sigh’d, and cast his eyes below:
The cord slides swiftly through his glowing hands,
And quick as lightning on the deck he stands.

Then the lovers embraced,

The noblest captain in the British fleet   
Might envy William’s lip those kisses sweet.

Sweet William commenced to assure her that he would be safe even in battle, and true to his vows. Finally,

The boatswain gave the dreadful word,
  The sails their swelling bosom spread,
No longer must she stay aboard;
  They kiss’d, she sigh’d, he hung his head.
Her lessening boat unwilling rows to land;
  ‘Adieu!’ she cries; and waved her lily hand.

Perhaps the memories of parting and the colonists' own travels came to mind.

The naming of genus Rudbeckia (pronounced rud-BEK-ee-a) isn't so romantic, but worth knowing. It was named for Olof and son Olof Rudbeck, well-known Swedish scientists of the 17th and 18th centuries. Olof the Elder, (1630-1702), also known as Olaus, was best known for his work in medicine and linguistics, but also for his accomplishments in botany, astronomy and music. A professor at Uppsala University, he established Sweden's first botanical garden there. It became known as Rudbeck's Garden.

Olof the Younger (1660-1740) continued in his father's footsteps, succeeded his father's professorship at Uppsala, excelling in ornithology, botany and linguistics. One of his best-known students was another famous Swede, Carl Linneaus (1707-1778), the botanist who devised our system of taxonomy. Quite naturally, Linneaus honored the Rudbecks in the genus Rudbeckia. Rudbeck's Garden was later re-named Linneaus Garden.

Of the 30 or so Rudbeckia species, I admire a few particularly.

Rudbeckia hirta may be the most common. It grows almost everywhere unplanted and untended. You'll find it along roadsides, in fields, and maybe wild in your yard, too. You've probably picked them for bouquets. There are several varieties. Rudbeckia hirta var. pulcherimma is hardier than the rest. You'll find it growing from Florida to Canada. It's mostly biennial at best, meaning that it flowers the second year and dies. In the south, R. hirta may flower the first year and die, but not before it re-seeds itself. In fact, that's the beauty of Rudbeckia hirta; it's easy to start from seed. Perfect for planting your own wildflower meadow.

Rudbeckia hirta has been used medicinally for many years. It's said to boost the immune system, so was used to treat various infections.

Maybe you remember the Gloriosa Daisy. I do. It was a big hit when introduced back in the 1950s. Gloriosa Daisy resulted as an attempt to perennialize R. hirta. That didn't work. But Gloriosa Daisy is still popular because the flowers are much larger than the species, in nice mixtures of colors, and sometimes double. It's ideal for naturalizing. I also remember my mother being disappointed that Gloriosa Daisy didn't return year after year.

Several new Rudbeckia hirta cultivars have been introduced recently promising longer than biennial lives. The jury is still out. Don't count on Rudbeckia hirta as a perennial yet, but enjoy it for what it is. Gloriosa Daisy is hardy in USDA climate zones 5 to 10.

Rudbeckia fulgida 'Goldsturm'

If you want a dependable native perennial that looks like Rudbeckia hirta, plant Rudbeckia fulgida or it's offspring. R. fulgida is the honored grandparent of most hybrid perennial Black-Eyed Susans. Its various varieties are the parents. These varieties are distinguished by slight differences. Plant producers look to those differences to selectively breed into new hybrids.

Rudbeckia fulgida var. sullivantii is the parent of the most popular Black-Eyed Susan, Rudbeckia fulgida var. sullivantii 'Goldsturm'. Developed in Germany, the name means "gold storm." It certainly is. The flowers are golden yellow, large and abundant, appearing for weeks from mid-summer to fall. It's so tough, you'll find it in planting beds around gas stations and shopping malls. Not surprisingly, it was named the 1999 Perennial Plant of the Year by the Perennial Plant Association. R. fulgida var. sullivantii is hardy in USDA climate zones 3 to 9.

Rudbeckia fulgida var. speciosa is almost exactly the same as var. sullivantii, but shorter. Common names include Eastern Coneflower, Orange Coneflower, Showy Coneflower. 'Viette's Little Suzy' is one to look for. 'Little Suzy' is named after a family of plant hybridizers in the U.S. R. fulgida var. speciosa is hardy in USDA climate zones 4 to 8.


(Note that the common name, Coneflower, is also shared with the related genus, Echinacea. They are not to be confused, though some Echinaceas were once named among the Rudbeckias. .)

Rudbeckia lacinata, known as Cutleaf Coneflower, is a tall one, sometimes growing 9 feet high. The large flowers with drooping petals are light lemon yellow. It's too tall for planting in the front of perennial beds, but perfect for planting in the rear. The petals fluttering in the breeze add motion and interest to the border. The disadvantage of its height is that it needs support to keep it from falling over.

Back in 1894, a seedling of R. lacinata named 'Golden Glow' was introduced to an appreciative gardening audience. Showy double blooms and shorter height (about 5 feet) made it very popular. But like its parent, it also needs support. 'Golden Glow' is still available, but superseded by an offspring named R. lacinata 'Golden Drop.' 'Golden Drop' only grows to 3 feet. If you want to plant a "heritage" garden featuring old-fashioned, heirloom species, Rudbeckia lacinata is a "must have." It's hardy in USDA climate zones 4 to 8.

Rudbeckia maxima

Rudbeckia maxima, also known as Great Coneflower and Cabbage Leaf Coneflower, grows to 6 feet. The medium yellow flowers sport prominent cones. It's native to Texas and surrounding Gulf states. Rudbeckia maxima is known to be hardy in USDA climate zones 6 to 8.

Rudbeckia nitia is tall, like R. lacinata and R. maxima, but the large, golden yellow flowers have green centers. It's commonly called Shining Coneflower. R. nitida should be considered a protected species, so don't collect it from the wild. From it, plant breeders have produced a wonderful new plant called 'Herbstsonne.' 'Herbstsonne' means "autumn sun." Enormous flowers on tall 6 foot plants really attract attention. This, too, is perfect for height and drama in the perennial border. 'Goldquelle' is a shorter version with double flowers. 'Goldquelle' means "bonanza". It deserves the name. R. nitida is hardy in USDA climate zones 4 to 10.

Rudbeckia subtomentosa is another desirable species. It's commonly called Sweet Black-Eyed Susan. You'll find it growing wild in the central United States. Height is about 4 feet. The flowers are especially fragrant. 'Henry Eilers', a cultivar, displays large golden blossoms with tubular petals, somewhat resembling yellow wagon wheels. R. subtomentosa is hardy in USDA climate zones 4 to 10.

Rudbeckia triloba

Rudbeckia triloba, commonly known as Three-lobed Rudbeckia or Brown-eyed Susan, is very hardy, thriving in USDA climate zones 3 to 10. Bright yellow flowers with big brown centers really attract attention. Plants grow to 4 feet. Two cultivars, 'Prairie Glow' and 'Red Sport' produce bright orange flowers with yellow tips.

Rudbeckias perform best in full sun, but will tolerate partial or light shade. Soils should be well-drained soils with pH ranging from 5.6 to 7.5.  Take a soil sample to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service office for proper analysis.

Prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 6 inches deep, removing all traces of weeds. Compost may be incorporated into the soil.  Incorporate 10-10-10 fertilizer at a rate of no more 2 lbs. per 100 square feet into the top 4 inches to 6 inches of soil. Avoid synthetic fertilizers contacting any part of your plants.

If planting seed, sow according to instructions on the seed packet.

If planting container-grown plants, space larger ones 24 inches to 36 inches apart. Dig planting holes into the cultivated soil a little less deep than the depth of the growing container.  Water the plants in the pots, then drain.  Place the plants into the holes and back-fill, watering as you go. Press soil around the root balls. Do not cover entirely the root balls with soil. The tops should be slightly exposed. Add a top-dressing of mulch around the plants, not on top of them, about 1 inch deep.

Plant Rudbeckias with other plants having similar cultural requirements.  Fertilize sparingly and allow soil to dry between watering.

All Rudbeckias attract butterflies. Birds get enthusiastic about the seeds. All Black-Eyed Susans are reasonably drought-tolerant. They're especially suited to naturalizing, wildflower meadows, cutting gardens, wildlife gardens, native plant collections, heritage and cottage gardens. But they're wonderful in any perennial garden or border, even at gas stations and shopping malls.

Where should Black-Eyed Susans grow? Probably in your garden. Certainly in your heart.

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Rudbeckia hirta 'Prairie Sun'

"There's something in these hills" - The South Carolina Botanical Garden at Clemson University

South Carolina Botanical Garden entrance - Clemson University

“There's something in these hills . . . the ability of an institution through the unending dedication and greatness of its people — its administration, its faculty, its staff, its students and its alumni — to impart to all it touches a respect, an admiration, an affection that stand firm in disquieting times when things around it give impressions of coming unglued… Yes, there's something in these hills where the Blue Ridge yawns its greatness.”

— Joe Sherman, Clemson University, Class of 1934, Director of Public and Alumni Relations

Sherman’s words, written in 1969, are as relevant today as they were then. The story of Clemson University is, to state the obvious, an inspiring one. The people and the place have made it so.
The place, at the foot of the Blue Ridge Mountains, was the site of Fort Rutledge, built in 1776. The fort was the idea of  General Andrew Williamson who was in command of the colonial forces in the area during the Revolutionary War. Williamson requested Governor John Rutledge for money to erect a defensive fort against British forces and allied Cherokees. His request was granted, probably because he promised to name the fort in honor of the governor.

The property was later owned by the John E. Calhoun family and descendants, who worked it as the Fort Hill Plantation.  In 1888, Thomas G. Clemson, the widower of Calhoun heiress, Anna Maria Calhoun, honored his wife’s desires and willed the property for the establishment of an agricultural college. The college opened in 1893 as an all-male military academy, later became co-educational, and eventually attained university status.

Part of Clemson’s story includes that of the South Carolina Botanical Garden. The garden began in 1958 as a camellia preserve adjacent to the Calhoun plantation, and has since grown to include over 295 acres of landscaped gardens and woodlands.  With so much to see, I recommend that you geta map online and print it off, or from the Hanson Discovery Center.  A paved drive leads to it from the main entrance.  While you’re there, you should take in the Campbell Geology Museum, which is landscaped to resemble a western mine. The Discovery Center and Geology Museum were closed the day I visited, but I thoroughly enjoyed walking around, viewing mineral displays, cacti and succulents in arid settings, manicured landscapes and container gardens.

The main parking lot on Pearman Boulevard provides a fine overlook of the Heritage Gardens. The Heritage Garden introduces visitors to the history of Clemson, principally its years as a military school, through a series of bronze reliefs and plaques within the Golden Tigers and Class of ’42 Cadet Life Garden. The complex includes trellised walkways, an amphitheater, and the colorful Caboose Garden (Class of ’39), dominated by a restored train caboose.

From there, visitors can meander through woodland gardens and landscaped open spaces via a system of winding trails. Informative signs mark the sections and give insight into the purposeful designs. Most of the gardens seem to have been partially funded by patrons, whose names they bear.
Near the entrance, the Hopkins Wildlife Habitat Garden displays plants and planting combinations that one might use, even in a home landscape, to provide food, water and shelter for wildlife. It’s a great place for children to watch for little creatures.

The Flower Display Garden is certain to provide ideas for the home landscape. Carefully planned combinations of annuals, perennials, shrubs and ornamental trees are delightful and thought-provoking.

The nearby Miller Dwarf Conifer Collection displays lovely cultivars that could easily be included in suburban gardens. Similarly, the adjacent Van Blaricom Xeriscape Garden demonstrates within its attractive panorama how to xeriscape, i.e. to landscape with plants, such as sedum, that have low moisture requirements.

The South Carolina Botanical Garden began as a camellia collection near what is now the football field. It was moved to its present location on the banks of a duck pond. The Camellia Trail is best visited from November through April when they are in bloom. Unfortunately, I visited the Camellia Trail in summer, but the scenery was pleasant.

From the camellia collection, the trail winds downhill to cross the Earthen Bridge. The bridge serves not only to cross a small stream by the duck pond, but as a functional sculpture.

Within the botanical garden is the historic Hanover House, and the Heirloom Vegetable Garden behind it. The Hanover House (circa 1716) was originally situated in Berkeley County, SC and was the home of French Huguenot, Paul de St. Julien. Threatened with being inundated by the waters of Lake Moultrie in 1914, it was moved to the Clemson campus. Ironically, much of Clemson’s campus was also threatened later with inundation by the creation of Lake Hartwell by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.

Education is at the heart of the South Carolina Botanical Garden, and it certainly extends to young children. Several gardens located in close proximity meet their needs: the Peter Rabbit Garden, Butterfly Garden, Ethnobotany Garden, Food for Thought Garden, and Pollinator Border. I loved them all, and admired the creative minds of designers who were able even to make a large propane tank look like it belonged.

The trail system continues through woodlands, over small streams, and to nature-based sculptures such as The Crucible. One might come upon it without a map in hand and think it’s a historic relic, perhaps a source of water for Cherokee people or early settlers who lived nearby. In a sense it is a historic relic, but not so old. The Crucible was installed in 1995 by sculptor Herb Parker.

Natural Dialogue is another nature-based sculpture that you should visit. Stop to think.

My wanderings eventually brought me to the Hunt Cabin (circa 1826). It originally stood near Seneca, SC, but, when threatened with demolition, was moved to the Clemson campus in 1935. The setting is appropriate, and seems original. You’ll get a glimpse of 19^th century life, and read about the hospitality that was shown there, even to scoundrels like William T. Sherman (not related to Joe, I hope).

Returning to my vehicle, I strolled through the Charles and Betty Cruickshank Hosta Garden, taking lots of pictures as I went.  Hostas are among the most popular perennials in American gardens. The Cruickshank Hosta Garden is an official American Hosta Society Display Garden, so you’ll see plenty of them. Keep your camera clicking as you examine some you might want for your own perennial border.

These highlights are but a few of the many you can enjoy in the South Carolina Botanical Garden. Though there were plenty of visitors exploring the grounds, I appreciated the much needed sense of serenity that we often need “in disquieting times” when the world seems like it’s “coming unglued.” Yes, “there’s something in these hills” for you.

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Beardtongue - More Appealing Than It Sounds

Penstemon x mexicali 'Prairie Twilight'

The name, "Beard-tongue", doesn't sound at all appealing. Monstrous, perhaps. Or a symptom of illness. Yet, among plants, the Beard-tongue is much more appealing than it sounds. The name belongs to the genus, Penstemon (pronounced PEN-stem-on) and refers to the flowers' five stamens - 4 fertile and 1 infertile. Trumpet-shaped penstemon flowers more or less resemble open mouths. The infertile stamen, protruding through the mouth, suggests the common name. This photo by Walter Siegmund appearing at Wikipedia, shows a good example.

Penstemon flower - closeup

Or is that Mick Jagger coughing up a hairball?

Penstemon is a large genus including over 250 species. Most are native to North America. As you can see from the PLANTS Profile map, they enjoy a very wide distribution, and may be found from alpine to desert environments. In addition to the species, very many hybrids have been developed. Many of the newer ones are derived from Mexican species. Though hardiness differs by species and hybrid, they tend to share other requirements - full sun to partial shade, well-drained soil, pH between 6.1 to 7.8.

Flower spikes, rising above the foliage, generally blossom from June through September. Species range in height from 4 inches to 72 inches. As you might expect, the shorter species tend to be more cold-hardy. Foliage is usually evergreen. I recommend them for alpine gardens, rock gardens, low perennial borders, hanging baskets and and containers.

Tall penstemons are wonderful in groupings, adding height, color and texture to mixed annual and perennial borders. They're marvelous for cut flowers. All penstemons attract butterflies and hummingbirds.

Though penstemon's have enjoyed mild popularity since the 19th century, the selection of Penstemon digitalis 'Husker Red' as the 1996 Perennial Plant of the Year sent their popularity soaring. Consequently, many new varieties and hybrids have been developed.

When choosing penstemons for your perennial garden, select those which are hardy in your climate zone. The USDA climate zone map is an indispensable resource. If the ones you like are not hardy in your area, don't despair, they can be treated as annuals. If only semi-hardy, a good layer of mulch over winter may protect the crowns enough to survive.

Before planting, take a soil sample to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service office for analysis. Follow their instructions. If amendments are recommended, incorporate them into the soil when cultivating. Cultivate to a depth of 10 inches. Remember, good drainage is essential.

You might wonder whether penstemon has any known medicinal attributes. As a matter of fact, various species do. Herbal Medicine of the American Southwest, by Charles Kane, says that penstemon has been used as a poultice for skin wounds, insect bites and rashes. HerbNET reports that penstemon has also been used to relieve toothache, stomachache, chest pains, fever and chills.

In review, penstemons are wonderful for cut flowers, and for attracting hummingbirds and butterflies. They're also fine for xeriscaping. Those with medicinal herb gardens may consider including penstemon in their collections. With so many species and hybrids available, you're sure to find several that are appropriate for your garden.

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Centaurea - Stars In Your Garden

Centaurea montana 'Amethyst In Snow'

"What ridge of the pasturing woodlands must I traverse to summon old lifebringing Cheiron to help your wound? Or where can I find medicines, the secrets of Paieon the Healer's painassuaging art? Would that I had what they call the herb centaury, that I might bind the flower of no-pain upon your limbs, and bring you back safe and living from Haides whence none returns! What magic hymn have I, or song from the stars, that I may chant the ditty with Euian voice divine, and stay the flow of blood from your wounded side? Would I had here beside me the fountain of life, that I might pour on your limbs that painstilling water and assuage your adorable wound, to bring back even your soul to you again!" Nonnus, Dionysiaca, Book 35, line 60ff.

Raised in a family of homoeopathic physicians, I traversed Appalachian woodlands with them in search of botanical remedies. "Boys, now, boys," Pop would say with weighty pauses as he stopped us to probe herbs with his staff, "this is...." Then he'd tell us of their medicinal properties. For him and his sons, the doctors, the hikes were born of compassion for their patients.



For us grandchildren, they were adventures. I do remember hearing of centaury, Centaurium, or maybe it was Centaurea.

"Lifebringing Cheiron", mentioned by Nonnus, was a seminal figure in the ancient Western world for his mastery of medicine. Pliny the Elder wrote in his Natural History that Cheiron actually discovered botany and pharmacy. Cheiron (aka Chiron, Kheiron), however, was not a man, but a centaur - half man and half horse. A different kind of centaur, he was more intelligent and not given to drunkenness like the rest.

Cheiron was sired by Kronos (aka Saturn), a titan of mythical proportions. Kronos was romping with a nymph, Philyra, when his wife/consort Rhea showed up unexpectedly. Kronos quickly turned himself into a stallion to avoid recognition, and proudly galloped away. Philyra, pregnant and abandoned, gave birth to Cheiron. Stung by the ignominy, Philyra begged Kronos to turn her into a linden tree (Tilia spp), which he did.

Though (or perhaps because) he was half horse, Cheiron was lucky. He lived. Kronos ate most of his other sons.

Cheiron, not hobbled by his circumstances, turned out well. He became a master of the healing arts, and taught others. Consequently, we've all benefited. Asclepius, one of Cheiron's most accomplished students, traveled to Cos where he inspired Hippocrates. There Hippocrates established a medical school from whence healing knowledge was disseminated, passed down through the ages, eventually studied by my grandfather and father, and here I am telling you about it!

Cheiron has been immortalized in the names of various plants. Centaurea is one of them. There are about 40 species and subspecies of Centaurea thriving in North America, some of them naturalized from Europe. Of those, nearly half are commercially available as ornamental plants. The rest are either not desirable or heartily despised.

As you may have guessed, Centaurea was so named because of purported medicinal qualities. C. montana is sometimes use in Europe as an eyewash. The dried flowers made into tea are also said to break up mucous congestion, cleanse the kidneys and generally de-toxify the body, and act as astringent mouthwash.

You may recognize some of the common names: Bachelors Button, Basketflower, Centaury (a name mostly associated with Centaurium, which is a different genus), Cornflower, Dusty Miller, Knapweed, Mountain Bluet, Starthistle.

Hardiness varies according to species. Among the most popular are C. cineraria and C. cyanus. Not cold hardy, they are grown as annuals or tender perennials. C. montana, one of my favorites, is a hardy perennial, thriving in USDA climate zones 4 through 8. The many star-like flowers remind me of a constellation in the garden.

Centaurea prefers average, well-drained soil with pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8. Choose a site in full sun or partial shade. Take a soil sample to your nearby Cooperative Extension Service office for analysis. Follow the recommendations.

If the soil is compacted, till to a depth of 10 inches. Add amendments, if necessary. Remove all traces of weeds. Seeds of C. cyanus may be sown in rows or gently sprinkled on the surface and lightly covered. Space container grown C. cineraria 12 inches to 18 inches apart. Space C. montana 18 inches to 24 inches apart. Water the plants in the pots, and allow to drain. Plant no deeper than they grew in the pots; in other words, don't bury them. Gently water as  you back-fill with soil. 

C. cineraria is usually grown for its foliage. C. cyanus and C. montana are grown for their flowers. All are reasonably drought-tolerant and deer-resistant. Use them for xeriscaping, butterfly gardens, cut flowers, mixed annual and perennial borders. Many gardeners like to establish theme gardens. Centaurea is perfect for heirloom plant collections and medicinal gardens.

You might be wondering what became of those characters I mentioned before. Here's a brief summary.

Asclepius knew too much, having discovered the secret to immortality. Zeus killed him with a thunderbolt to keep the secret from getting out.

Cheiron died of a poison arrow in the foot, and now resides in the heavens as the constellation Sagittarius.

The doctors are deceased, except for one who is alive and well at 95 years old.

Hippocrates died. Physicians recite his Oath.

Kronos (Saturn) is still ticking.

Philyra is still sung and danced about.

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Life Lessons From Silene

Sources that I've researched indicate that the genus, Silene (pronounced sy-LEE-nee), aka Lychnis, was named by Carl Linnaeus in 1753, probably with the mythical and not too unbelievable character Silenus in mind.

Lewd Silenus, tutor of Dionysus, satyr and drunk in bad company with a Cyclops, could not get enough of wine. Yet, he was known for his occasional wisdom, loosened by drink. He was an imaginary embodiment of these sayings:

In vino veritas; En oino álétheia (in wine there is truth).
In goes wine, out comes a secret.
In wine there is truth, in water there is health.

Euripides figured him like this, exchanging with ODYSSEUS:

SILENUS

...Let me have a single cup of that (wine) and I would turn madman,

giving in exchange for it the flocks of every Cyclops

and then throwing myself into the sea from the Leucadian rock,

once I have been well drunk and smoothed out my wrinkled brow.

For if a man rejoice not in his drinking, he is mad;...

...and there is dancing withal, and oblivion of woe.

Shall not I then purchase so rare a drink,

bidding the senseless Cyclops and his central eye go hang?

Euripides, The Cyclops (420BC)

Apparently, Silenus had had too much of water.

I've often wondered what goes on in the minds of plant taxonomists when they're bestowing names. Unfortunately, few have told. We know, however, that certain plant characteristics are often the bases for botanical names.

Silene is not known for medicinal qualities, nor is it associated with wine and intoxication. Some species have burgundy-colored flowers, but not enough of them to suggest the name. Many species of Silene have sticky parts, so are commonly known as Catchfly. Another common name, shared with other plants, is Bachelor's Button. Perhaps one holds a clue.

Well before the Victorians made much of the language of flowers, plants were steeped in symbolism. Daisies, for example, symbolized innocence. White lilies symbolized virginity. Red roses symbolized love. Ivy symbolized marital fidelity. Catchfly symbolized a snare. Perhaps that thought prompted Linnaeus to bestow the name.

Being the son of a Lutheran minister and amateur botanist, Carl Linnaeus was well-acquainted with Scripture. His father, Nils, probably taught him life lessons drawn from both.

No doubt Nils also warned him from the Bible as he left for University.

Take heed to yourselves, lest at any time your hearts be overcharged with surfeiting, and drunkenness, and cares of this life, and that day come upon you unawares. (Luke 21:34)

Let us walk honestly, as in the day; not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying. (Romans 13:13)

Surfeiting, drunkenness, rioting, chambering, wantonness, strife, envying and cares take their toll. Silenus, entrapped by greedy King Midas and wine, burst out, “Oh, wretched ephemeral race … why do you compel me to tell you what it would be most expedient for you not to hear? What is best of all is utterly beyond your reach: not to be born, not to be, to be nothing. But the second best for you is—to die soon.”

Having been well-trained in Latin, Greek, Hebrew, theology, mathematics and botany, it's not much of a stretch to speculate that Linnaeus reflected on Catchfly and named it after tragic Silenus. Perhaps he even had a bit of personal experience from university life to draw upon.

Silene is a genus of about 700 species, distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. Some were formerly included in the Lychnis genus. Fewer than three dozen species are commercially available. Bloom time is generally from late spring to early summer. Most thrive in USDA climate zones 4 through 9. Average garden soil with pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8 is fine. Drought-tolerance varies by species. Deer do not care to eat Silene.

Perennial borders, butterfly gardens, hummingbird gardens should include Silene. Flowers are good for cutting, too. Theme gardens emphasizing popular Victorian plants, the language of flowers, myth and legend would be perfect for Silene.

If you would like to grow Silene, choose a site in full sun to partial shade. Take a soil sample to your local Cooperative Extension Service office for analysis. You will pay a small fee. If your soil is not friable, cultivate to a depth of 8 inches. Add fertilizer and other amendments as recommended. Remove all traces of weeds.

Water the plants in their pots. Allow them to drain. With a garden trowel, dig holes twice as large as the pots. Space the plants about 12 inches apart. (Larger growing species can be planted farther apart.) Remove the plants from their containers, add water to the planting hole, fill in around (not on top of) the root balls with native soil. Water again. A light top-dressing of mulch may help to retain moisture and discourage weeds until your plants are established.

Silene, especially S. coronaria 'Gardener's World' with it's white foliage and striking red blooms, will certainly captivate your garden visitors. While you have their attention, instruct them in life lessons drawn from plants.

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The Secret Is Oregano

ANDY - That certainly is delicious spaghetti, Mrs. Sprague, especially that sauce of yours.

MRS. SPRAGUE - Oh, thank you, Andrew. It's something of a secret recipe handed down through five generations of the Sprague family.

ANDY - Oh, a secret. Oh, well, whatever it is in there it certainly is tantalizing.

MRS. SPRAGUE - I really shouldn't tell you, Andrew, but it's a Greek spice called oregano.

ANDY - Oh, well, who in the world would ever think of putting oregano in a sauce?

HOWARD - That's what makes it a secret recipe, Andy.

-The Andy Griffith Show, Dinner At Eight, Episode 206

With Aunt Bee and Opie out of town, Goober stops by Andy's house to keep him company and to fix a spaghetti dinner, seasoned with a secret ingredient: oregano. Half-way through dinner, Goober remembers that he forgot to give Andy two messages, but can't remember what they were. One was from Howard Sprague, the other from Helen Crump. Dimly recalling, he sends Andy to Howard's for another dinner. Surprised by his visit, the Spragues put dinner back on the table and Andy is served spaghetti again. But Goober got it wrong. Afterward, Andy gets an angry call from Helen that he's one hour late for dinner. Again, it's spaghetti with a secret ingredient: oregano.

Popular since ancient times, oregano is no secret. It's a perennial herb, native to the Mediterranean region, with various species and subspecies indigenous to Kyrgyzstan, Italy and Greece, Crete and Turkey, and Syria. The most popular is Origanum vulgare, pronounced or-RI-gan-um vul-GAIR-ee. Oregano is commonly used, not only in spaghetti sauces, but in cuisines typical of most Mediterranean countries. Flavors vary somewhat by species and quality. Generally, oregano is more flavorful when dried than fresh.

Hippocrates is quoted as saying, "Let your food be your medicine, and your medicine be your food." It shouldn't come as a suprise that oregano has been valued as a medicinal herb. Hippocrates, himself, valued it as an antiseptic. Perhaps this is the reason that oregano was originally used as a food additive. It combats Listeria monocytogenes, a food-borne pathogen associated with milk, cheese, raw meats and even raw vegetables. Hippocrates wouldn't have known about Listeria, but the ancients certainly observed that some herbs helped to preserve foods and made them safer to eat. It's no wonder that the tastes of foods and associated herbs should become so inextricably linked.

Oregano has also been used to treat sore throats, stomach ailments and bronchial problems. As a poultice, it is said to relieve muscle aches and sprains. It's also known to be a powerful antioxidant.

Oregano grows as a low, sometimes creeping herb. Mature height is 6 inches to 12 inches, and spreads up to 18 inches. Showy pinkish-purple flowers appear mid-summer to early fall. It grows quickly and thrives in sun, though it appreciates afternoon shade in hot climates. It is drought tolerant, deer and rabbit resistant and tolerates foot traffic. Oregano thrives in USDA climate zones 4 to 9. It tolerates a wide variety of soil types with pH ranging from 6.1 to 8.5.

Before planting, test your soil. Your nearby Cooperative Extension Service can help you for a nominal fee. Follow the recommendations from the test results. If your soil is not friable, cultivate it 8 inches to 10 inches deep. Add amendments. Space the plants from 12 inches to 18 inches apart.

Oregano is excellent for container gardens, fragrance gardens, kitchen gardens and medicinal gardens, and as a ground cover. Golden oregano is one of the most attractive. If you enjoy watching butterflies, oregano will attract them.

Here is a recipe for pasta sauce I think you'll enjoy. The secret, of course, is oregano.

Ingredients  

    1/3 cup extra virgin olive oil
    3 garlic cloves, minced
    5 green bell peppers, cut into 1/4 inch strips
    1 small onion, sliced into 1/4 inch rings
    8 ounces black olives, sliced
    1/2 teaspoon dried cayenne pepper flakes
    1 cup dry white wine
    32 ounces low-sodium (salt) tomato juice
    1 teaspoon dried basil
    1/2 teaspoon dried oregano
    2 tablespoons honey
    1 teaspoon anchovy paste
    Salt and black pepper to taste
    1 tablespoon chopped fresh parsley

Directions

    In a large skillet, heat the oil on medium-high, add the garlic, and cook, stirring, until the garlic begins to turn golden.  Add the peppers and onion and cook until they are soft and browning at the edges. Add the olives and crushed cayenne pepper. Pour in the wine, stir and cook for 1 minute.
    Add the tomato juice, basil, oregano, honey, salt and pepper. Stir in anchovy paste. Heat to boiling, then reduce heat to medium. Cook until the liquid is reduced and the sauce is thickened. Stir in fresh parsley. Serve with pasta.

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Discover Hardy Gloxinia

Alexander von Humboldt (1769 - 1859), German traveler and explorer once complained, "People often say that I'm curious about too many things at once: botany, astronomy, comparative anatomy.  But can you really forbid a man from harbouring a desire to know and embrace everything that surrounds him?"

Humboldt had been trained in biology, geology, chemistry, physics and history.  With knowledge and wanderlust, he followed his passion and traveled to South America to explore the continent.  Following his five-year journey, he published over the next twenty years a thirty volume account of his exploration, and introduced the world to wonders of that continent.  Charles Darwin considered him "the greatest scientific traveler who ever lived."

Pierre Nicolas Le Chéron d'Incarville, following his passion, also introduced the world to exotic wonders.  Those, however, were of the Orient.  d'Incarville's first passion was to take Christianity to China.  As a Jesuit missionary, he was charged to convert the Qianlong Emperor.  The emperor was not interested, but they developed mutual respect based upon their common interest in plants.  While in China, d'Incarville wrote several works on China which were published in Europe, including a French-Chinese dictionary.  He also catalogued Chinese plants and sent back seeds unknown to Europe.

A genus of plants which he introduced to the West was given his name to honor his work:  Incarvillea (pronounced in-car-VIL-ee-uh).  The genus contains about 16 species, all native to central and eastern Asia.

Jean Marie Delavay (1834–1895) was another who was curious about many things at once.  A French missionary to China, he was also passionate about plants and exploration.  His missionary zeal worked both ways, for as he worked to introduce Chinese to Christ, he worked to introduce France to the plants of China.  He sent over 200,000 specimens to his homeland.  From them, over 1500 new species were discovered.

Several plants commemorate Father Delavay's work in their names.  One is Incarvillea delavayi (pronounced del-uh-VAY-ee), a species that honors two great plant explorers at once. 

I. delavayi, also known as hardy gloxinia, is a lovely selection for the garden.  With velvety, deciduous foliage, it grows to 24" tall and produces showy pink or white flowers.  The flowers appear in late spring to mid-summer.  They're fragrant, too, and great for cutting.  Plants self-sow readily from seed.  Many gardeners include hardy gloxinias in their butterfly gardens.  They are also suitable for container gardens, and can be grown indoors.

I. delavayi is cold hardy in USDA climate zones 6 to 10.  The site should be in full sun or partial shade.  Soil should be well-drained, with pH ranging from 6.1 to 7.8.  Incarvillea is drought-tolerant, so is often chosen for xeriscaping.  That said, however, Incarvillea flowers best when the soil is slightly moist.

As always, take a sample of your garden soil to your local Cooperative Extension Service office before planting.  They will send it to a lab for analysis and recommendations.  Expect to pay a nominal fee.  If you don't understand the report, ask the County Agent to interpret it for you.

Planting begins in spring.  Prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 8" deep, removing all traces of weeds.  A good all-around practice is to mix 5 tablespoons of 10-10-10 fertilizer and 2 cups of bone meal per ten square feet area of garden.  Repeat the application when growth appears, but be careful that fertilizer does not come into direct contact with plant tissue.

Plant hardy gloxinia tubers about 3" to 5" deep.  Depth is measured to the bottom of the hole or trench.  If the tubers are separated, they may be planted horizontally.  Recommended plant spacing is 12" to 15" apart.  Water well, then let the soil become slightly dry before watering again.  The plants don't require much maintenance.

Unfortunately, hardy gloxinias are not planted widely enough.  When discovered, gardeners often try them out of curiosity.  But it is that desire to know and embrace that characterizes plant lovers.  So follow that desire to explore.  Try hardy gloxinias in your garden.

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Thyme It Is A Precious Thing

Come all ye maidens young and fair
And you that are blooming in your prime
Always beware and keep your garden fair
Let no man steal away your thyme.

For thyme it is a precious thing
And thyme brings all things to my mind.
Thyme with all its flavours, along with all its joys
Thyme, brings all things to my mind.

Once I had a bunch of thyme.
I thought it never would decay.
Then came a lusty sailor
Who chanced to pass my way
And stole my bunch of thyme away.

The sailor gave to me a rose.
A rose that never would decay.
He gave it to me to keep me reminded
Of when he stole my thyme away.

Those lines from an old Irish song, A Bunch Of Thyme, remind us that herbs mean more to us than we often realize.  In the song, the herb symbolizes virginity and chastity.  In the language of flowers, thyme symbolizes courage, vigor and strength.  All are important virtues to be guarded.  It seems that herbs strike some deep chords within us that resonate when we experience them, especially by taste or smell.  It's certainly so with thyme.  I have a small jar of it beside me now.

Thymus (pronounced TY-muss) is a genus of about 350 perennials native to warmer regions of Europe, Africa and Asia in the Mediterranean region.  It belongs to the Lamiaceae or mint family.

Thymus has been highly valued and used by western civilizations since the ancient Greeks as incense, fumigation, anti-depressant, pest repellant (though powerless against lusty sailors), vermifuge, antiseptic, antifungal agent, mouthwash, treatment for skin infections and bronchial disorders, and flavoring.  Hippocrates is quoted as instructing, "Let your food be your medicine, and your medicine be your food."  Thyme is a healthful flavoring, indeed.  It contains antioxidants, is rich in potassium, iron, calcium, manganese, magnesium, and selenium, B-complex vitamins, beta carotene, vitamin A, vitamin K, vitamin E, vitamin C and folic acid.

Thyme has small, soft, aromatic leaves.  Diminutive lavender flowers are produced throughout the growing season. 

Most species are low-growing and spreading, so they are wonderful as ground covers planted near stepping stones.  Thyme tolerates some foot traffic, so can used as a lawn substitute.  Herb gardens, fragrance gardens, hummingbird and butterfly gardens are not complete without thyme.  Bees produce excellent honey from thyme.  Thyme is drought-tolerant, deer and rabbit resistant.

Where ever you plant it, you'll find yourself looking for recipes that include thyme.  It can be used in recipes fresh or dry, and is marvelous as an ingredient in aromatic cooking oils.

Thyme is generally hardy in USDA climate zones 4 through 8 or 10, requires full sun and well-drained soils with pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5.  Take a soil sample to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service Office for proper analysis.

Prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 6" deep, removing all traces of weeds. Compacted soil should be cultivated to 10" deep.  Compost may be incorporated into the soil. 

Space the plants 8" to 24" apart, depending upon the species. Dig planting holes into the cultivated soil a little less deep than the depth of the growing container.  Water the plants in the pots, then drain.  Place the plants into the holes and back-fill, watering as you go. Press soil around the root balls. Do not cover entirely the root balls with soil. The tops should be slightly exposed. Add a top-dressing of mulch around the plants, not on top of them, about 1" deep.

Plant thyme with other plants having similar cultural requirements.  Fertilize sparingly with organic fertilizer and allow soil to dry between watering.  The greatest cause of failure is over-watering.  Thyme is definitely a low-maintenance plant.

Thyme, "with all its flavours, along with all its joys", pleases the senses while it improves health and enhances the landscape.  "Keep your garden fair and let no man steal away your thyme."

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Scabiosa: Better Than Its Name Sounds

Whether it is pronounced SCAB-ee-oh-sah or SKAY-bee-oh-sah, Scabiosa sounds dreadful and makes me imagine an itch coming on.

When I was a child, head lice and scabies struck fear in the heart of my mom.  Scabies is a skin condition caused by a tiny mite (Sarcoptes scabiei var. hominis) tunneling under the epidermis to lay its eggs.  Head lice and scabies were socially delicate matters in those days and very difficult to eradicate.  Among the many things I was warned to avoid at school and elsewhere, other boys' hats and people with rashes were near the top of the list.

I didn't obey all of her warnings.  I wore a yarmulke (kosher enough I thought) borrowed from Larry so I could join his middle-school entourage, and rassled with a scabious assailant when he wouldn't let go of my leg.  I ran over oyster shells, brushed by poison ivy, boated without a shirt, and explored island hammocks, so I've had my share of wounds, rashes, sunburns, itches and chiggers, but never head lice or scabies.

It's said that Scabiosa was named by Carl Linnaeus because of its traditional use as a treatment for scabies.  Perhaps Scabiosa and other herbs were steeped as tea in a tub of water for bathing, or the rough leaves might have been used to scratch the itch.  I don't know that it actually works for I've never had to use it.

The genus contains from 14 to 80 species (depends on who's counting what) native to Europe, parts of Asia and the Mediterranean region.  However, some have been introduced to North America.  Scabiosa is a member of the Dipsacaceae family.   A common name for it is Pincushion Flower, derived from the appearance of the seed head.

Very few scabiosas are used as ornamental plants.  Most are from the species, S. columbaria (pronounced kol-um-BAR-ee-ah).  Columbaria means "pigeon-like", perhaps because it can be found living in niches on the sides of cliffs in its native habitat.

A cultivar, S. columbaria 'Butterfly Blue' was named Perennial Plant Of The Year in 2000 by the Perennial Plant Association.  Since then its popularity has taken off.  Light blue flowers are produced in mid-summer on mounding plants up to 18" high.  Flowering may be extended through fall if the spent seed heads are removed.  In addition to blue, other cultivars exhibit flowers in pink and white.  Scabiosa is great for naturalizing, growing in perennial gardens, mixed gardens with bulbs and annuals, and in low borders.  Butterflies love it, and birds love the seeds.  It's easy to care for and drought-tolerant when established.

S. columbaria thrives in USDA climate zones 4 through 9 or 10.  Plant in full sun to partial shade.  Average well-drained garden soil with pH ranging from 6.6 to 7.8 is fine.

Before planting, take a sample of your garden soil to your local Cooperative Extension Service office.  They often provide collection bags.  With each soil sample, indicate the type of plant you intend to grow in it.  For the most basic recommendations, you may be charged a nominal fee.  For more information such as micro-nutrient and organic content you may be charged more.

Prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 8" deep, removing all traces of weeds.  Adjust soil pH according to soil test results.

Your soil sample report will also include fertilizer recommendations.  Following instructions is always a good bet.  A fine all-around practice is to mix 5 tablespoons of 10-10-10 fertilizer and 2 cups of bone meal per ten square feet area.  Repeat the application later in the season if they appear to need a boost, but be careful that fertilizer does not come into direct contact with plant tissue.

Scabiosa is much better than its name sounds.  Plant it in your garden and you'll soon understand why it has become so popular.

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The Saving Graces Of Sage

"Sweet-smelling sage grows in abundance right at the front of my garden.  It has a forceful energy and produces a healing drink.  Helpful with many human ailments, it merits eternal youth."  -- Hortulus, Walafrid Strabo (c. 808 – August 18, 849)

"Amongst my herbs, sage holds the place of honour; of good scent it is and full of virtue for many ills," opined the monk.

His subject was Salvia officinalis (pronounced SAL-vee-ah oh-fiss-ih-NAH-liss), an herb known since ancient times for its healing properties.  Salvia translated means "saving."  Officinalis means "official", referring to its inclusion in the materia medica - that body of knowledge now known as pharmacology.  It is popularly called "common sage."  But there's nothing common about it.  Common sage is an extraordinary gift that heals the body and graces the table.

The plant is native to the Mediterranean region.  It's a member of the Lamiaceae family which includes mints, lavender and rosemary.

As I've mentioned in other articles, Hippocrates is quoted as instructing, "Let your food be your medicine, and your medicine be your food."  So the species was and continues to be used as a flavoring and medicinal herb.  Salvia is rich in vitamins A, B-complex, C and numerous minerals.  It improves kidney and liver function and stimulates the circulatory system.  Antioxidant agents help to prevent carcinogenic compounds from forming.  Chemicals such as thujone are reputed to improve mental concentration.

If you are tempted to treat yourself with sage, I highly recommend you ask your doctor first.  This is particularly true of women who are pregnant.

Salvia is not a small genus.  Arguably S. officinalis is best known.  But there are between 700 and 900 species in the genus, including annuals, perennials, shrubs and sub-shrubs, making Salvia the largest genus in the Lamiaceae family.

It's well beyond the scope of this article to treat them all, so I'll mention only a few.

• Salvia coccinea - Common name: Scarlet Sage, Hummingbird Sage, Texas Sage. A tender perennial.  Native to southern United States, Caribbean, Mexico, Central and South America.  Flower color: Red/variable.  Height: 18" to 24".  Hardiness:  USDA climate zones 7 - 10.  Exposure: Full sun to partial shade.  Use:  Ornamental.
• Salvia divinorum - Common name: Diviners' Sage, Maria Pastora.  A tender perennial.  Native to Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico.  Flower color: Light blue/white.  Fragrance: Don't know.  Height: 6' to 8'.  Hardiness: USDA climate zones 10 - 11.  Exposure: Shade.  Use:  Messes with the mind, calms anxiety.  Note:  Illegal in some states unless used for ornamental purposes.
• Salvia elegans - Common name: Pineapple Sage.  A tender perennial.  Native to mountains of Guatemala and Mexico.  Flower color: Red.  Fragrance: Pineapple.  Height: 36" to 48".  Hardiness:  USDA climate zones 8 - 11.  Exposure:  Full sun.  Use: Ornamental, tea, anti-depressant.
• Salvia farinacea - Common name: Mealy-cup Sage.  A tender perennial.  Native to Mexico.  Flower color: blue or white.  Height: 24".  Hardiness: USDA climate zones  8 - 11. Use:  Ornamental.
• Salvia guaranitica - Common name: Brazilian Sage, Hummingbird Sage.  A tender perennial.  Native to South America.  Flower color: Dark blue. Height: 24" to 48".  Hardiness: USDA climate zones 7 - 11.  Use:  Ornamental.
• Salvia hispanica - Common name: Chia.  Annual.  Native to Mexico and Guatemala.  Flower color: Light blue.  Height: 36".  Use: Beverage.
• Salvia nemorosa - Common name: Meadow Sage. Perennial.  Native to central Europe and western Asia.  Flower color: Blue, white, pink.  Height: to 36".  Hardiness: USDA climate zones 5 - 10.  Use: Ornamental.
• Salvia splendens - Common name: Scarlet Sage, Annual Salvia.  Annual.  Native to Brazil.  Flower color: Red, white, pink, salmon.  Height: 12".  Use: Ornamental.

As you have learned by now, there's a lot that you can do with salvia.  Don't forget, however, that the species have different properties.  You mustn't confuse them.

Herb gardens, fragrance gardens, hummingbird and butterfly gardens are not complete without salvia.  Salvia is also very effective in annual and mixed perennial borders for color and textural contrast.  If your growing space is limited, salvia performs well in containers.

Salvia guaranitica - Common name: Brazilian Sage, Hummingbird Sage

Salvia is generally heat-tolerant, often drought-tolerant, sometimes deer and rabbit resistant.  Particular tolerances, resistances, benefits and dangers depend upon the species.

Hardiness also varies by species.  Most require full sun and well-drained soils.  Take a soil sample, along with the name of the species you intend to grow, to your nearest Cooperative Extension Service office for proper analysis.

Prepare the planting bed by cultivating at least 6" deep, removing all traces of weeds. Compacted soil should be cultivated to 10" deep.  Compost may be incorporated into the soil.  Incorporate 10-10-10 fertilizer at a rate of no more 2 lbs. per 100 square feet into the top 4" to 6" of soil. Avoid synthetic fertilizers contacting any part of your plants.

Plant spacing varies by species. Dig planting holes into the cultivated soil a little less deep than the depth of the growing container.  Water the plants in the pots, then drain.  Place the plants into the holes and back-fill, watering as you go. Press soil around the root balls. Do not cover entirely the root balls with soil. The tops should be slightly exposed. Add a top-dressing of mulch around the plants, not on top of them, about 1" deep.

Plant your salvia with other species having similar cultural requirements.  The greatest cause of failure for salvia is over-watering.

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